Botany and Harvest Cycle
Santalum album, native to the Indian subcontinent, produces the highest santalol content and remains the benchmark for fine fragrance. Heartwood within the trunk and larger roots accumulates oil as the tree matures; Indian forestry departments typically authorize harvest after 15–20 years to maximize yield (FAO, 2017). Australian Santalum spicatum grows faster—reaching harvest size in 10–15 years—but contains roughly half the santalol percentage of album, leading to a drier, more cedar-like profile.
Sandalwood is hemiparasitic; plantations interplant host species such as Acacia for the first few years to supply water and nutrients. Soil management and controlled thinning influence both wood density and oil quality.
Cultivation Regions and Trade
India’s state-run auctions (notably in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) remain the primary channel for legal Santalum album sales. Australia now exports significant volumes of plantation-grown spicatum and album hybrids, backed by sustainability reporting and FSC certification (Sandalwood Growers Association of Australia, 2022). New Caledonia and Vanuatu harvest S. austrocaledonicum, whose oil sits between album and spicatum in sweetness.
CITES lists several Santalum species in Appendix II, requiring export permits for international trade. India restricts private ownership and export of raw sandalwood logs but allows oil exports from licensed distillers.
Distillation and Yields
Heartwood is chipped, ground, and steam-distilled for 24–48 hours; artisanal producers sometimes extend runs to 72 hours to enrich the heavier β-santalol fraction. Typical oil yields of Indian album wood reach 4–6% by weight, with α- and β-santalol jointly exceeding 70% of the oil. Australian spicatum yields 2–3% oil with 45–55% total santalols (Quinlan et al., 2020).
Modern plants capture distillation condensate for reuse and recover spent biomass as boiler fuel or compost, reducing energy costs and environmental impact.
Aroma Chemistry
Sandalwood’s creamy warmth stems from stereo-specific sesquiterpene alcohols—primarily α-santalol (45–50%) and β-santalol (20–25%) in premium Indian oil (Jones et al., 2006). Spicatum contains higher farnesol and nuciferol levels, yielding a thinner, more herbal tone. Synthetic substitutes such as Sandalore, Polysantol, and Javanol replicate aspects of the natural profile and are often blended with small quantities of genuine album to control cost.
Pricing and Market Dynamics
ITC data for 2021 places premium album oil at USD 1,500–2,000 per kg, mid-grade album at USD 900–1,200 per kg, and spicatum at USD 400–800 per kg depending on santalol content and certification (International Trade Centre, 2021). Prices surged in the 2010s due to illegal logging and demand from Chinese and Middle Eastern markets; plantation output has stabilized pricing but remains sensitive to weather and regulatory shifts.
Sustainability Considerations
Historical overharvesting drove Indian sandalwood to “vulnerable” status on the IUCN Red List. Contemporary programs focus on community-managed plantations, agroforestry partnerships, and strict harvest quotas. Australian companies now track every log via RFID tagging, while New Caledonian cooperatives share profits with Kanak landowners (Sandalwood Growers Association of Australia, 2022).
Brands increasingly disclose whether oils come from certified plantations or from legacy stockpiles; some allocate portions of sales to reforestation funds.
Regulation and Safety
IFRA does not impose a specific maximum on natural sandalwood oil in fine fragrance, but formulators must account for potential allergens such as farnesol or eugenol when blended. Because sandalwood is classified as a potential skin sensitizer, leave-on products require labeling if allergen thresholds are exceeded (CITES/IFRA, 2023). Exporters must comply with CITES permits and provide botanical traceability documentation to prevent substitution with lower-grade species.